Binaries
A problem I experienced when pursuing my PhD and submitting academic articles was that I had built solutions to problems that required dramatic scale to be effective and worthwhile. Responses to my publication submissions often claimed such problems did not exist; however, I had observed them during my time within industry, such as at Google, but I couldn’t cite it!
One problem that is only present at these mega-codebases is massive binaries. What’s the largest binary (ELF file) you’ve ever seen? I had observed binaries beyond 25GiB, including debug symbols. How is this possible? These companies prefer to statically build their services to speed up startup and simplify deployment. Statically including all code in some of the world’s largest codebases is a recipe for massive binaries.
Similar to the sound barrier, there is a point at which code size becomes problematic and we must re-think how we link and build code. For x86_64, that is the 2GiB “Relocation Barrier.”
Why 2GiB? 🤔
Well let’s take a look at how position independent code is put-together.
Let’s look at a simple example.
extern void far_function();
int main() {
far_function();
return 0;
}
If we compile this gcc -c simple-relocation.c -o simple-relocation.o we can inspect it with objdump.
> objdump -dr simple-relocation.o
0000000000000000 :
0: 55 push %rbp
1: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp
4: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax
9: e8 00 00 00 00 call e
a: R_X86_64_PLT32 far_function-0x4
e: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax
13: 5d pop %rbp
14: c3 ret
There’s a lot going on here, but one important part is e8 00 00 00 00. e8 is the CALL opcode [ref] and it takes a 32bit signed relative offset, which happens to be 0 (four bytes of 0) right now. objdump also lets us know there is a “relocation” necessary to fixup this code when we finalize it. We can view this relocation with readelf as well.
Note
If you are wondering why we need-0x4, it’s because the offset is relative to the instruction-pointer which has already moved to the next instruction. The 4 bytes is the operand it has skipped over.
> readelf -r simple-relocation.o -d
Relocation section '.rela.text' at offset 0x170 contains 1 entry:
Offset Info Type Sym. Value Sym. Name + Addend
00000000000a 000400000004 R_X86_64_PLT32 0000000000000000 far_function - 4
This is additional information embedded in the binary which tells the linker in susbsequent stages that it has code that needs to be fixed. Here we see the address 00000000000a, and a is 9 + 1, which is the offset of the start of the operand for our CALL instruction.
Let’s now create the C file for our missing function.
We will now compile it and link the two object files together using our linker.
> gcc simple-relocation.o far-function.o -o simple-relocation
Let’s now inspect that same callsite and see what it has.
> objdump -dr simple-relocation
0000000000401106 :
401106: 55 push %rbp
401107: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp
40110a: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax
40110f: e8 07 00 00 00 call 40111b
401114: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax
401119: 5d pop %rbp
40111a: c3 ret
000000000040111b :
40111b: 55 push %rbp
40111c: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp
40111f: 90 nop
401120: 5d pop %rbp
401121: c3 ret
We can see that the linker did the right thing with the relocation and calculated the relative offset of our symbol far_function and fixed the CALL instruction.
Okay cool…🤷 What does this have to do with huge binaries?
Notice that this call instruction, e8, only takes 32bits signed which means it’s limited to 2^31 bits. This means a callsite can only jump roughly 2GiB forward or 2GiB backward. The “2GiB Barrier” represents the total reach of a single relative jump.
What happens if our callsite is over 2GiB away?
Let’s build a synthetic example by asking our linker to place far_function really really far away. We can do this using a “linker script”.
SECTIONS
{
/* 1. Start with standard low-address sections */
. = 0x400000;
/* Catch everything except our specific 'far' object */
.text : {
simple-relocation.o(.text.*)
}
.rodata : { *(.rodata .rodata.*) }
.data : { *(.data .data.*) }
.bss : { *(.bss .bss.*) }
/* 2. Move the cursor for the 'far' island */
. = 0x120000000;
.text.far : {
far-function.o(.text*)
}
}
If we now try to link our code we will a “relocation overflow”.
I used lld from LLVM because the error messages are a bit prettier.
> gcc simple-relocation.o far-function.o -T overflow.lds -o simple-relocation-overflow -fuse-ld=lld
ld.lld: error: :(.eh_frame+0x6c):
relocation R_X86_64_PC32 out of range:
5364513724 is not in [-2147483648, 2147483647]; references section '.text'
ld.lld: error: simple-relocation.o:(function main: .text+0xa):
relocation R_X86_64_PLT32 out of range:
5364514572 is not in [-2147483648, 2147483647]; references 'far_function'
>>> referenced by simple-relocation.c
>>> defined in far-function.o
When we hit this problem what solutions do we have?
Well this is a complete other subject on “code models”, and it’s a little more nuanced depending on whether we are accessing data (i.e. static variables) or code that is far away. A great blog post that goes into this is the following by @maskray who wrote lld.
The simplest solution however is to use -mcmodel=large which changes all the relative CALL instructions to absolute JMP.
> gcc simple-relocation.o far-function.o -T overflow.lds -o simple-relocation-overflow
> gcc -c simple-relocation.c -o simple-relocation.o -mcmodel=large -fno-asynchronous-unwind-tables
> gcc simple-relocation.o far-function.o -T overflow.lds -o simple-relocation-overflow
./simple-relocation-overflow
Note
I needed to add-fno-asynchronous-unwind-tablesto disable some additional data that might cause overflow for the purpose of this demonstration.
What does the disassembly look like now?
> objdump -dr simple-relocation-overflow
0000000120000000 :
120000000: 55 push %rbp
120000001: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp
120000004: 90 nop
120000005: 5d pop %rbp
120000006: c3 ret
00000000004000e6 :
4000e6: 55 push %rbp
4000e7: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp
4000ea: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax
4000ef: 48 ba 00 00 00 20 01 movabs $0x120000000,%rdx
4000f6: 00 00 00
4000f9: ff d2 call *%rdx
4000fb: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax
400100: 5d pop %rbp
400101: c3 ret
There is no longer a sole CALL instruction, it has become MOVABS & CALL 😲. This changed the instructions from 5 (opcode + 4 bytes for 32bit relative offset) to a whopping 12 bytes (2 bytes for ABS opcode + 8 bytes for absolute 64 bit address + 2 bytes for CALL).
This has notable downsides among others:
- Instruction Bloat: We’ve gone from 5 bytes per call to 12. In a binary with millions of callsites, this can add up.
- Register Pressure: We’ve burned a general-purpose register,
%rdx, to perform the jump.
Caution
I had a lot of trouble building a benchmark that demonstrated a worse lower IPC (instructions per-cycle) for the largemcmodel, so let’s just take my word for it. 🤷
We would like to keep our small code-model. What other strategies can we pursue?
More to come in subsequent writings.
